Without suitable infrastructure, CO2 cannot be moved.
Handling, storage logic, and safe procedures.
Vessels without a port chain remain limited in effectiveness.
The port pathway is an integral part of feasibility.
CO2 transport by vessel places specific technical demands on port infrastructure that differ fundamentally from conventional liquid bulk transport. Liquid CO2 is transported at temperatures between -50°C and -20°C and pressures of 7 to 20 bar. These parameters determine the material requirements for tanks, piping, and handling equipment.
At the port, three core functions are required: reception, intermediate storage, and onward transport. Reception requires unloading facilities with flexible arms or hoses rated for the specific pressure and temperature profiles of CO2. Conventional liquid bulk loading arms are not readily usable, as materials may become brittle at the required cryogenic temperatures.
Intermediate storage requires pressure-insulated tanks with active temperature control. Passive storage is not possible because CO2 can transition to a supercritical state at elevated pressure and temperatures above the triple point, jeopardising process safety. Storage capacity must be matched to throughput: buffers that are too small create queues; oversized storage ties up capital.
Onward transport is either via pipeline to geological storage sites or by vessel to offshore injection locations. The interface between port storage and downstream infrastructure is a critical bottleneck. Pipeline connections require compressor capacity; vessel loading requires re-conditioning of the CO2.
In terms of safety, port facilities for CO2 handling must designate ATEX-compliant zones, install gas detection systems, and maintain emergency procedures for leaks. CO2 is heavier than air and can accumulate in enclosed spaces and depressions – a risk particularly relevant in the port environment with shafts, tunnels, and underpasses.
For shipowners considering CO2 transport as a business field, port infrastructure is a decisive bottleneck factor. Without adequate port facilities, there is no market, regardless of how many CO2 tankers are ordered. The investment decision for CO2-capable vessels must therefore always be linked to the availability of port infrastructure.
Operational requirements for CO2 tankers differ from conventional gas carriers. Crews must be familiar with the specific risks of CO2, particularly asphyxiation hazards and the behaviour of the medium under pressure and temperature changes. Training concepts must be developed and aligned with port safety concepts.
Charterers and industrial clients expect a reliable and verifiable CO2 chain from emitter to storage site. The port section of this chain must be documented without gaps, including quantity measurement, quality control, and handover protocols. This requires measurement technology and digital documentation systems that are not yet present in most ports.
The Northern Lights project in Norway is the most advanced CCS project with a maritime component in Europe. CO2 is transported from industrial emitters by vessel to an onshore terminal and from there injected via pipeline into geological formations beneath the North Sea. The port infrastructure at the Øygarden terminal was specifically designed for CO2 handling and demonstrates the investments required.
Rotterdam is developing into a CO2 hub for the Benelux region. The Porthos project plans to collect CO2 from industrial plants in the Rotterdam port area and store it offshore via a shared pipeline. The port infrastructure here serves as a collection and compression point, not as a transhipment facility for vessel transport.
Both approaches demonstrate that the port’s role in the CCS system depends heavily on regional context. Ports without direct pipeline access to storage sites will primarily function as transhipment points for vessel transport. Ports with pipeline connections will become collection points for regional CO2. Infrastructure requirements differ accordingly.
Three questions should guide the evaluation. First: is the location realistic for CO2 handling? Not every port is suitable – spatial conditions, proximity to residential areas, and the permitting situation are decisive. Second: what does the downstream chain look like? Without a secured transport pathway to the storage site, port infrastructure is useless. Third: are the financing structures robust? CCS port infrastructure requires high upfront investments with uncertain throughput volumes in the initial years.
For shipowners, the central question is whether the port infrastructure of a potential CCS corridor will be available in time and at sufficient scale to justify vessel investments.
CO2 handling infrastructure at a port — cryogenic storage, specialised loading arms, gas detection systems — represents a significant upfront cost with throughput volumes that remain uncertain in the early years of a CCS corridor. This uncertainty shapes who is willing to fund what, and in most projects seen so far, funding is split across several parties rather than carried by one.
Port authorities typically fund the underlying land, berth and general safety infrastructure, treating it as a long-term strategic investment comparable to other energy transition infrastructure they have backed before. Industrial emitters, who need the export route to exist for their own capture projects to be viable, often co-fund storage and handling capacity through long-term throughput commitments that give the infrastructure a guaranteed baseline of use.
Shipowners generally fund only the vessel side — the CO2 carriers themselves — and are reluctant to commit to newbuild orders until port infrastructure funding is secured, creating a sequencing problem. Public and EU-level funding instruments have stepped into this gap on several announced projects, though eligibility and disbursement timelines vary by programme and by country.
Vessels built or converted for liquid CO2 transport are assessed against requirements that combine elements of conventional gas carrier rules with additional provisions specific to CO2’s behaviour under pressure and temperature. Classification societies look closely at tank design pressure ratings, material selection for the specific temperature range used, and the vessel’s ability to manage boil-off or pressure build-up during the voyage.
Crew certification is a related requirement that is still maturing across the industry. Because CO2 carriers are a relatively new vessel type, standardised training pathways are less established than for conventional LNG or LPG carriers, and class societies and insurers both tend to ask how a specific crew was trained for CO2-specific risks such as asphyxiation hazards, rather than assuming generic gas carrier experience is sufficient.
Insurers place particular weight on the documented condition of the CO2 chain from capture to storage. A gap in quantity or quality documentation at the port interface can complicate a claim even when the vessel itself performed without incident, because liability questions in an early-stage CCS chain often turn on where in the chain a loss or contamination actually occurred.
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